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Fuels and Their Combustion by Robert T Haslam & Robert P Russell
Fuels and Their Combustion by Robert T Haslam & Robert P Russell
Hard Cover PErsonal library tag inside front cover
809 pages
Copyright 1926
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
PREFACE vii
THE FUEL SITUATION 1
Importance of energy from mineral fuels and water power-Efficiency of fuel utilization-The development and the use of power-Industrial fuels, solid, liquid and gaseous.
CHAPTER II
ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF COAL 13
Validity of vegetal origin of coal-Accumulation of vegetal matter -Formation of peat-Devolatilization of peat-The causes of variations in coals-The origin of cannel and boghead coals-The composition of coal-Ultimate analysis-Proximate analysis-Rational analysis-The effect of oxygen in coal.
CHAPTER III
TYPES OF COAL AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION 46
Peat-Lignite-Subbituminous coal-Bituminous coal-Cannel coal-Semi-bituminous coal-Semianthracite-Anthracite-Comparison of the different coals-Classification of coals-Frazer'sRalston's-Campbell's-White's-Twelfth International Geological Congress-Regnault-Gruner-Ashley's-Parr's-Coal analyses.
CHAPTER IV
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION AND STORAGE OF COAL 72
The influence of sulfur-Direct action of coal and oxygen-Summary of information on spontaneous combustion-Effects of weathering-Appearance of weathered coal-Change in size on weathering-Loss in heating value-Firing and coking qualities of weathered coal-Precautions in storing coal-Methods of storing coal.
CHAPTER V
COAL RESOURCES AND COAL PRODUCTION 86
Coal resources-By continents-America-United States-The Eastern Province-The Gulf Province-The Northern Great Plains Province-The Rocky Mountain Province-The Pacific Coast Province-Alaska-Canada-Mexico, Central and South America-Europe-Asia-Africa and Oceania-Coal production and value-Anthracite-Bituminous coal-Lignite-Peat-Production in the United States, by states-Coal consumption.
CHAPTER VI
PETROLEUM 104
Composition of petroleum-Origin-Geology-Losses in petroleum production-Grades used as fuel-Properties and specifications of fuel on-Petroleum resources of the United States and Mexico-Petroleum production and the future of the industry
CHAPTER VII
OTHER PRIMARY FUELS - 130
Shale oil-Natural gas-Wood-Charcoal-Tan-bark-Straw-Bagasse-Briquets-Colloidal Fuel.
CHAPTER VIII
THE CHEMISTRY OF THE COMBUSTION REACTIONS 137
Heats of reactions-Reaction equilibrium-Rates of combustion or reactions velocities-Effect of temperature on rate q combustion-Effect of diffusion-Effect of surface-Catalysis-The equilibrium and velocity of the individual combustion reactions.
CHAPTER IX
COMBUSTION OF THE ELEMENTARY FUELS 170
Mechanism of combustion of solid carbon-Carbon dioxide theory -Carbon monoxide theory-Carbon complex theory-Mechanism of combustion of gaseous hydrocarbons-Preferential combustion of hydrogen-Preferential combustion of carbon-Hydroxylation theory-Mechanism of combustion of hydrogen and CO under furnace conditions.
CHAPTER X
COMBUSTION CALCULATIONS 193
Use of calculations-Fundamental considerations in combustion calculations-Law of conservation of matter-Law of conservation of energy-The gas law-Law of combining weights-Choice of units-Use of ratios-Basis for calculations-Fuel gas-flue gas ratio and carbon balance-Flue gas-air ratio and nitrogen balance-Fuel gas-air ratio-Excess air-Net hydrogen-Heats of combustion- Specific heats and heat capacities-Balances-Boiler furnace calculations-Producer gas calculations-Lime burning calculations-Graphical aids in combustion calculations.
CHAPTER XI
PROPERTIES AND COMBUSTION OF GASEOUS FUELS 260
Advantages of gaseous fuels-Fundamental factors in the combustion of gaseous fuels-Ignition temperatures-Limits of inflammability-Rate of flame propagation-Explosion waves-Radiation from flames-Flame temperature-Regeneration and recuperation-Heating value of gases-Air required for combustion-Surface catalysis-Gas burners-Domestic gas burners-Orifice-Mixing or injection tube-Ports-Shutters-Efficiency of domestic gas burners-Factors affecting the type of flame-Industrial gas burners-Port type burners-Aspirator type burners-Proportioning machines.
CHAPTER XII
COMBUSTION OF COAL ON GRATES 333
Combustion on the grate-Composition of gases in the fuel bed-Primary air-Formation of CO2-Formation of CO-Effect of rate of firing on gas composition-Effect of rate of firing on temperature of fuel bed-Effect of air velocity on combustion-Combustion of gases over the fuel bed-Size of combustion space for any desired completeness of combustion, rate of firing, excess of air, and quality of coal-Most economical air supply for a given furnace and coal.
CHAPTER XIII
THE OPERATION OF HAND-FIRED FURNACES 373
Placing coal on the fire-Cleaning fires-Frequency of firing-Clinker formation-Prevention of clinker-Draft regulation-Thickness of fuel bed-Smoke prevention-Preventing clinker formation-Obtaining maximum efficiency.
CHAPTER XIV
MECHANICAL STOKERS AND FURNACES - 383
Historical outline of stoker development-Classification and description of mechanical stokers-Chain or traveling grate stokers-Coals suitable for use on chain grate stokers-Draft requirements, rates of combustion and regulation of combustion rate with chain grate stokers-Overfeed stokers-Draft requirements, rates of combustion and regulation of combustion rate with overfeed stokers-Hand-operated stokers-Underfeed stokers-Coals used with underfeed stokers-Draft requirements and regulation of combustion with underfeed stokers-Boiler setting with mechanical stokers-Average size of combustion space-Arches-Furnace throat-Baffles-Water-cooled and air-cooled furnace walls-Air preheaters and the use of preheated air.
CHAPTER XV
POWDERED COAL 426
Development of powdered coal firing-Powdered coal preparation -The unit system-The storage system-Drying equipment-Pulverizing equipment-Powdered coal storage-Transportation of powdered coal to burners-Powdered coal feeders or burners-Fuels suitable for use in powdered form-Furnaces for burning powdered coal-Costs of powdered coal-Safety in powdered coal installations-Advantages and disadvantages of powdered coal.
CHAPTER XVI
THE COMBUSTION OF FUEL OIL 468
Fuel oil equipment-Storage tanks-Strainers-Oil pumps-Oil heaters-Piping and valves-Meters and thermometers-Oil burners-Spray type burners-Air atomization-Steam atomization-Rotary burners-Mechanical spray burners-General considerations in burning oil-Costs of fuel oil equipment and atomization-Advantages of oil fuel-Oil fired furnaces-Cannon radiation furnace-The effect of excess air and load on stack losses-Size of combustion space required-Changing from coal to oil-Oil and tar as open hearth fuels-The use of recirculation of flue gas-Domestic oil burning-Quality of oil used for domestic burners-Types of domestic oil burners-Efficiency of domestic oil burners-Methods of ignition in domestic oil burners-Safety features of domestic oil burners.
CHAPTER XVII
FURNACE EFFICIENCY AND DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT LOSSES 509
Furnace losses-Basis of heat balance Summary of heat balances -Furnace testing-Quantity measurements-Heat content-Heat balance-Heat input-Heat in fuel-Heat in auxiliaries-Heat in raw material-Heat output-Heat in product-Heat absorbed in reactions-Heat loss in products-Stack losses-Cinder loss-Radiation loss-Other known losses-Unaccounted-for losses-Interpretation of test results-Hand-fired boilers-Stoker-fired boilers-Gas-fired boilers-Oil-fired boilers-Heating furnaces-Open-hearth furnaces-Blast furnaces-Cement and lime kilns-Fuel consumption of furnaces.
CHAPTER XVIII
PRODUCER GAS 541
Historical-Field-Present status-Fundamental reactions in air-blown producer-Troubles with the air-blown producer-Steam as an aid to producer efficiency-Reactions in the fuel bed of a gas producer-The mechanism of producer-gas formation-Actual gasification results-Effect of depth of fuel bed on gas composition-Most desirable ratio of steam to coal-Effect of fuel-bed condition-Rate of gasification-Judging the quality of producer gas-Fuels suitable for producer gas-manufacture-Classification of producers-Types of producers-Description of modern producers-The Hughes producer-The R. D. Wood producer-The Morgan producer-The Chapman producer -The Smith producer-The U. G. I. pressure producer-Byproduct recovery producers-Slagging-ash producers-The Wollaston producer-Precautions for efficient producer operation-The use of oxygen-enriched air in producer-gas manufacture.
CHAPTER XIX
WATER GAS AND OIL GAS 598
Water gas-Applications and uses-Formation-Composition- Description of plant-Operation of generator-Energy distribution in process-Waste-heat boilers-Recuperators and regenerators-Superheated steam-Accumulators-Principles of water-gas operation-Proper depth of fuel bed-Velocity of blow gas- Rate of steam supply-Temperature of fire-Length of cycleCarburetted water gas-Applications-Composition-Description of plant-Oil cracking for enrichment-Kinds of oil used-The enriching process-Factors affecting cracking-Operation of a carburetted-water-gas set-Energy distribution-Principle of operation-Coal as a generator fuel-Back-run process-Enrichment by catalytic production of methane-Water-gas as a raw material for liquid fuels and chemicals-Oil gas-Applications-Composition-Apparatus and operation of an oil-gas set-Jones process-Dayton process-Energy distribution in the formation of oil gas.
CHAPTER XX
THE CARBONIZATION OF COAL 646
The importance-Development of the carbonization process- The mechanism of carbonization-Characteristics of coals for carbonization-Effect Of heat on gas and coking coals-Progress of carbonization in the oven or retort-Changes in composition during carbonization-Influence of coking properties of specific coals-Fundamental differences between high- and low-temperature carbonization-General considerations in carbonization for coke production and for gas manufacture-Low-temperature carbonization-Carbonization equipment-Beehive coke ovens-By-product ovens-The Semet-Solvay by-product coke oven-The Koppers by-product coke oven-The Willputte oven-The Roberts oven-Energy relations in coke ovens-D-type gas retorts-Intermittent vertical retorts-Continuous vertical retorts-Steaming in vertical retorts-Low-temperature carbonization equipment-Complete gasification processes-Methods of heating gas retorts-The products of carbonization-The properties of coke-Combustibility of coke-Coke as a fuel for domestic heating-Coke for water-gas production-Coal gas-Ammonia-Benzol-Tar.
APPENDIX I
FLOW OF LIQUIDS AND GASES 718
Friction drop-Fluid heads-Cause of flow-Types of motion-Straight-line motion-Turbulent motion-Critical velocity-Friction factor-Flow of liquids in pipes-Flow of gases in flues-Loss of velocity head due to bends-Pressure drop-Pressure drop in fuel bed, past boiler tubes, through economizers and due to velocity head-Losses due to expansion and contraction-Pressure drop through ports-Recuperators and regenerators-Methods of measuring the flow of fluids-The design of chimneys-Distribution of gases in furnaces.
APPENDIX II
FLOW OF HEAT 746
Mechanism of heat transfer-Heat transfer by conduction-Conductivity-Path of constant cross-section-Cross-section proportional to length of path-Logarithmic mean-Potential concept-Heat transfer by convection-Film coefficient-Overall coefficient-Forced convection-Natural convection-Condensing vapor-Gas films-Natural convection-Forced convection-Optimum velocity-Use of logarithmic mean in heater calculations -Heat transfer by radiation-Total radiation-Net radiation-Black-body coefficient.
APPENDIX III
RATE OF HEATING 765 Mathematical development of rate of intermittant heating-Graphical solution-Physical constants-Classification of problems-Value of heat transfer coefficient-Low-temperature heating-Transfer of heat at high temperatures-Heating a small charge-Black-body coefficient of metals-Graphical method-Factors in heating-Heat transfer from flames-Convection- Radiation-Wall temperature-Heating rate.
INDEX 783
PREFACE
Efficiency in combustion and fuel utilization is daily assuming added importance as the most accessible supplies of our best fuels approach depletion, and as fuel costs advance. Recent years have seen such widespread adoption of new methods of fuel utilization that the science of combustion has not kept abreast of practice. This book-the outgrowth of a lecture course at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology-covers the field broadly and in so far as possible points out the underlying principles on which further progress must be based. It is intended to meet the needs of men using fuels in industry, and of students in technical schools and colleges. It is believed that this volume will serve in two ways: first, by giving a comprehensive treatment of the subject, and second, by means of numerous references guiding him into further and more intensive study.
In order to give the reader the proper viewpoint, the first subjects treated are the origin, composition and production of the natural fuels-coal, petroleum and natural gas. In the chapters devoted to combustion equipment, representative types are described as illustrative of modern design. Since the interpretation of combustion data depends on calculations based on the common combustion reactions, this phase of the subject is presented in considerable detail. Secondary or manufactured fuels-producer, water, oil and coal gas-are given special prominence in view of their rapidly growing importance. Since the flow of air and flue gases and heat transfer are inseparably connected with the capacity and efficiency of combustion equipment, the book concludes with three chapters dealing with these subjects. The decision as to the amount of space to be allocated to each subject is a matter of individual judgment, and the authors, in making this decision, have been fortunate in securing the advice of many engaged in the industry.
Because the combustion of fuels is essentially a chemical change, an adequate treatment of the subject requires an understanding of the chemical principles involved. The authors have endeavored to make the volume self-contained in this respect.
Wherever possible, actual plant data have been used in the illustrative examples and the results of calculations are given only to the number of significant figures commensurate with the probable accuracy of the basic data. In a few instances the more rigorous scientific qualifications have been omitted for clearness of presentation.
Throughout the book some intentional repetition has been introduced for the sake of emphasis, or in order to avoid the necessity of turning back to previous chapters. A representative bibliography is given at the end of each chapter.
Data and material have been drawn from many sources. Full acknowledgment has been given and any omission is unintentional. In addition to the acknowledgments given throughout the book, special thanks are due to Mr. H. O. Forrest of the Chemical Engineering Department of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for the vast amount of work done in connection with Chapters X, XVII, Appendices I, II and III. Dr. E. W. Thiele, of the Standard Oil Company of Indiana, has rendered invaluable assistance in connection with Chapter XIX. Thanks are also due the following: Professors J. T. Ward and William P. Ryan of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for reviewing and proof reading, Mr. R. L. Hershey for assistance in indexing, and Mr. Philip Byrne, of the American Gas & Electric Corporation, Mr. D. W. Wilson of the Iroquois Gas Company of Buffalo, New York, Mr. O. O. Malleis of the Koppers Company, Mr. F. H. Johnson of the Petroleum Heat & Power Company, Mr. M. E. Benesh of the Peoples Gas, Light and Coke Company of Chicago, Mr. Stewart Coleman of The Humble Oil and Refining Company of Houston, Texas, and Mr. L. J. Willien of Charles H. Tenney & Company for reviewing various chapters.
ROBERT T. RASLAM. ROBERT P. RUSSELL.CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS,December, 1925.
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